Government Study Sheet 2 (2305)
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Political socialization is the process by which people acquire a set of political attitudes and form opinions about social issues.
Agents of Political Socialization
Family Neighbors
Peer group Career
School Co-Workers
Religion Community organizations
Media Life stage
Higher education
Political values change almost throughout your life. The most important influences on your political values, however, found during your early life. Your family, school, community (religious organizations, youth groups, civic activities) and your peer groups have most profound effects. It is your family that gives you that basic attitude toward government that you will carry with you throughout your life.
|
|
Democrat |
Independent |
Republican |
Total |
|
both parents Democrats |
59% |
29% |
13% |
100% |
|
both parents Independents |
17% |
67% |
16% |
100% |
|
both parents Republicans |
12% |
29% |
59% |
100% |
-from NATIONAL ELECTION STUDY data
Family is the single most important factor in your political socialization. However, throughout your life, your political values influenced by college, adult peers (workers, friends, neighbors, spouses), political leaders, media and your political experiences. Too, maturation process alone will affect your political values. Until you have children, you will care little for public school issues. Until you own a home, you will care little for property tax issues. Political socialization, to a greater or lesser degree, will continue throughout your life.
The opinions you form exist at three basic levels.
1. values & beliefs
most abstract, broad principles
Sam Huntington – liberty equality, individualism, rule of law
2. political orientation
translation of values & beliefs into a systematic way of assessing the political environment
partisanship (psychological attachment to a party) & ideology (consistent set of values & beliefs about the purpose and scope of government)
3. political preferences
attitudes about specific issues / candidates
Public opinion is the collected attitudes of citizens on a given issue or question.
Governments tend to react to public opinion. The fact that a public official serves at the pleasure of the voters usually tends to make that official sensitive to public opinion.
American public opinion has some unique characteristics.
The public's attitudes toward a given government policy vary over time.
The majority of American voters stand somewhere near the middle ground on most issues in American politics.
Americans tend to fall into one of four categories based on how knowledgeable they are about politics & government.
opinion leaders
29% informed public 34% uninformed public 23% politically clueless 13%
American citizens are more than willing to express opinions about things of which they are totally ignorant.
American public opinion is pragmatic, rather than ideological.
We may often talk theoretically but we act practically. That does not mean we don’t have political ideologies but it does mean we probably aren’t ideologues in the true sense of the word.
public opinion polls - instruments by which we discover public’s opinion on an issue at a given point in time
The population is the group of people you’re interested in studying.
The sample is that part of the population considered to represent the entire population.
A poll is a type of survey or inquiry into public opinion conducted by interviewing a representative sample of the population.
population vs. sample / target population vs. random sample
A random sample is the result of a process that selects a sample from the larger population entirely by chance.
A poll’s sampling error tells you how much confidence you can have in the findings of the poll. The smaller the sampling error is, the more confidence you can have that the findings are accurate. The larger the sample is in relation to the population, the smaller the error. In general, you should look for a sampling error of ±3% … any poll with an error larger than ±5% is probably not worth the paper it’s printed on.
Properly conducted scientific polls are highly accurate and the data generated by an opinion poll are used to measure and analyze public opinion.
SLOPs (self-selected listener opinion polls), CRAPS (computerized response audience polling), intercept polls, FRUG polls (fund raising under the guise of polls) and push polls are neither scientific nor accurate.
Qualities of Public Opinion
1. Direction
a. positive
b. negative
2. Shape
a. normal curve
b. bimodal
c. skewed
3. Stability / Continuity
a. amount of change in shape over time
4. Intensity
a. strong
b. mild
c. neutral
Media-Politics Process
Information seldom full or complete
Candidates exploit issues in advertisements
Information becomes altered
Information becomes short, simple & highly thematic
Leads to the increasing importance of political advertising
Media Effect on Politics
Positives Negatives
Increased knowledge Increased voter skepticism
Agenda setting Reduced choice of candidates
Candidate orientation Politics as a game for the financial elite
Candidate issue positions
Media technology gives candidates tools
Media help candidates identify "hot" issues
Network News Coverage
More negative than ads
One-third of candidate messages are negative
Two-thirds of news coverage is negative
Structural bias in media
Early negative coverage is hard to shake
Networks shape sound bites from stories
Emphasizes the dramatic
No meaningful context
Political Advertising
Convey information that will evoke positive feelings about the candidate
Information can be positive or negative
Define candidate & issue positions
Define opponents
Candidate controls content
Candidate controls the appeal
Stress image and issues
Measure citizens’ responses
Reinforce long-held predispositions about issues, personalities, political parties
Increasingly negative
positive ads have to run again and again and again to stick
negative ads move poll numbers in three or four days
system rewards those who win — more important than voter turnout
What does the research say about negative advertising?
Negative ads do not increase participation
Negative ads reduce positive attitudes toward candidates and the race
Attack advertising extracts a toll on participation — voting drops by 2.5% with negative ad, increases by same amount with a positive ad, strongest effect on independents
Provide valuable information
Reveal information about candidate's strengths or weaknesses
Stimulate base into action
More knowledgeable voters are most likely to pay attention to ads
Negative ads are given more weight
Negative ads produce stronger emotional effects than positive ads
Political Advertising Strategies
1. Appeal to Authority
cite an authority who is not qualified to have an expert opinion
cite an expert when other experts disagree on the issue
cite an expert by hearsay only
2. Appeal to Force
predict dangerous outcomes if follow a course other than yours
3. Appeal to Popularity / Bandwagon
hold an opinion to be valuable because large numbers of people support it
4. Attacking the Person
attack the person making the argument, not the argument
attack the person making the argument because of those with whom he associates
insinuate that the person making the argument would stand to gain by it
5. False Dilemma
offer a limited number of options — usually two — when there are really more choices
6. Hasty Generalization
use a sample too small to support the conclusion
7. Slippery Slope
threaten a series of increasingly dire consequences from taking a different course of action
Trends
Fragmentation of audiences and outlets
Shift from networks toward more diverse sources — such as radio, local TV, Internet
Tabloidization of news
Fierce commercial pressures
Permanent campaigns — leading to constant polls, focus groups and electronic town meetings
I. Forms of Political Participation
A. inactives, 22%
B. voting specialists, 21%
C. parochial participants, 4%
D. campaigners, 15%
E. communalists, 20%
F. complete activists, 11%
II. Voter Turnout Data
A. regional patterns
1) northern and middle states — higher
2) western and southern states — lower
3) link turnout to political culture
B. calculating turnout
1) voting age population — all adults over 18
2) registered voters — citizens registered to vote
3) turnout based on registered voters higher than VAP
Voting is the principal means of political participation for most Texans.
Years of formal schooling is the single best socioeconomic predictor of the likelihood of an individual to vote.
Texans are most likely to learn political information about candidates from advertising materials prepared by the candidates.
III. Low Turnouts in Texas
A. current registration laws
1) citizen — many immigrants in Texas cannot vote
2) 18 years old
3) 30-day registration deadline (longer than most states)
B. historical barriers
1) $1.75 poll tax — a device used in Texas to prevent many lower income persons from voting during much of the 20th century
2) annual registration required
3) white primaries — primaries in one-party state determine winner of general election
4) property requirements for local elections
5) women’s suffrage
C. unique social factors in Texas that lower turnout
1) higher poverty rates
2) large minority population
3) large immigrant population
4) lower than average educational levels
5) lower than average age
D. lack of two-party competition
1) one-party Democratic from end of Reconstruction until 1970s
2) same case in most former Confederate states
E. traditional/individual culture
F. staggered local elections
Voting is the principal means of political participation for most Texans. Texans are most likely to learn political information about candidates and make their voting decisions based on advertising materials prepared by the candidates. The legal voting requirements include 18 years of age, thirty days residency, registered, and no felony offenses. Approximately 45% of all eligible voters have turned out to vote in elections since 1960. The best socioeconomic predictor of the likelihood to vote is the number of years of formal schooling. The voter turnout among Hispanics and Blacks is usually low because they feel they have little stake in politics. As a general rule, whites vote; minorities do not. Older people and those with higher incomes vote, while the young and poor do not. Those with professional jobs vote; those with blue- and pink-collar jobs do not. This should not be surprising since various means to prevent these people from voting have been used throughout our history. Literacy tests and the white primary were aimed at minorities. The poll tax was used to prevent many lower income persons from voting during much of the 20th century. How frequent a voter are you? Do you fit the stereotypes above?
An interest group is an organization of individuals with similar views that tries to influence government to respond favorably to those views.
The principal purpose of interest group activity is to influence government to respond to the group’s objectives.
I. Types of Interest Groups
A. membership organizations
1) business (dominant)
2) agriculture
3) professional organizations (doctors, lawyers, teachers)
4) labor unions (weak in Texas, a right-to-work state)
5) ethnic (NAACP, LULAC)
6) religious organizations
B. nonmembership organizations
individual businesses not part of a membership organization
C. local governments
II. Techniques Used by Interest Groups
A. lobbying — communication by a representative of a group directed at a government official in order to influence the official’s decisions.
1) legislature
-providing information, communications with constituents, filing bills
2) executive agencies
-influence implementation of laws
3) types of lobbyists
-contract
-in-house
-government (local)
-citizen
-private individual
B. electioneering — form a PAC
1) donate $ to campaign
2) media strategy (TV ads, newspaper ads)
3) raise $ for candidates
4) campaign volunteers
C. grassroots lobbying — shape public opinion
III. Interest Group Power
A. Money
oil and gas industry
B. membership — strength in numbers
teachers
C. hire former legislators — former members know system and the current members
D. distribution across state
1) wide distribution — strong
2) narrow or limited distribution — weaker
IV. Comparing Interest Group Power Across States
A. diversity
1) more diverse economy — more groups, less influence
2) less diverse economy — few dominant groups, more influence
B. party strength
1) weak two-party competition — strong groups
2) strong two-party system — weak groups
C. structure of state government
1) decentralized executive structure — strong groups
-iron triangle (legislative committee, executive agency, interest group)
2) centralized executive structure — weaker groups
An interest group is any organized group whose members have common views about certain issues and so try to influence the government. There are a number of distinct differences between political parties and interest groups. For example, the purpose of a political party is strictly political. Parties want to win elections. The purpose of an interest group, however, is to represent its members' interests. This may mean supporting a winning candidate but it means many other things as well, such as influencing legislation. Interest groups differ on membership, as well. The membership of a political party is extensive (broad activity) and inclusive (everyone) – meaning they include everyone who is interested in a broad range of issues. By contrast, interest groups have a membership that is intensive (specific act) and exclusive (not every) – only those people who share their opinions on a narrow range of issues are welcomed. Be careful, though, since in recent years the parties have from time to time been captured by small groups that acts more like interest groups than political parties. The antiwar Democrats of the 1970s and the fundamentalist Christian Republicans of the 1980s and 1990s are two good examples. Because Texas has traditionally had weak political parties, it has had very strong interest groups to fill the gap.
All interest groups have three general functions. First, they act to identify, aggregate, and express the interests of different segments of society. Second, they gather and disseminate information. Third, they provide expertise to the government and to their members. Depending on whom they are trying to influence, interest groups use a number of techniques to carry out these functions. In the executive and legislative arenas, interest groups engage in lobbying, which is presenting views directly to government officials. Lobbying is one of the most successful techniques that interest groups have. Therefore, a lobbyist's most important asset is access. Can he readily meet with legislators and executives? Lobbying is very effective because the legislature lacks independent sources of information. Interest groups also attempt to influence the legislative and executive branches by influencing elections with money, votes, volunteers, and endorsements. This is known as electoral activity or electioneering. In order to circumvent campaign contribution laws, interest groups set up PACs, or political action committees. The central purpose of a PAC is to provide campaign funds for candidates. Most of the recently organized PACs are associated with corporations which are not allowed to make campaign contributions. Interest groups have become such a powerful force in the Texas legislature, they are often referred to as the "third house."
In the bureaucratic arena, interest groups regularly attempt to influence the legislature in order to bring about an increase or a decrease in the appropriations to agencies that work with or against the interest group. Interest groups often have a direct involvement in developing and implementing programs run by the bureaucracy. We often speak of an iron triangle that exists between legislators, bureaucrats, and lobbyists. These groups often become so intertwined and interdependent that it is hard to tell who is who.
In the judicial arena, small, not-so-popular interest groups that have little money and little chance of winning in the legislature are more active since these techniques are less expensive than other techniques. Interest groups frequently file amicus curiae briefs. These "friend of the court" briefs express the opinion of the interest group on a case that is appearing before the court in an attempt to influence the judge’s ruling. The three largest filers of amicus curiae briefs are the U.S. Attorney General’s Office, the American Civil Liberties Union, and the NAACP. A more extensive technique used in the judicial arena is sponsoring test cases. Often, interest groups will use a particular person or incident as a test case of the constitutionality of a particular law. Two excellent examples of test cases sponsored by interest groups were Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka and Roe v. Wade. In those states where judges are elected, interest groups may engage in electoral activity although, as with the legislative and executive arenas, this technique can be quite expensive.
Finally interest groups attempt to influence you and me. In the public arena, interest groups engage in grass roots activities, which include a whole list of techniques from advertising to mass mailings. While interest groups are often vilified in the U.S., they play an important role in a democracy. They allow citizens to become actively engaged in influencing the government on issues that are of importance to them. In fact, one in three Americans are members of one or more interest groups. As with voting, higher, educated, higher income, professionals are most likely to be members of interest groups. Do you belong to or have you thought of belonging to an interest group? Why or why not? If you’ve never joined an interest group, give it a try! You might find that you like the experience.
I. 50 Two-Party Systems
A. state parties independent of national organizations
1) few national offices, many state offices
2) common goals and similar issues, but separate organizations
B. state party ideology
1) competitive vs. noncompetitive states
2) policy-relevant vs. non-policy-relevant states
3) Texas
-not competitive, Republican dominance
-not policy relevant — old southern Democrats similar to new Republicans
-traditional culture, small government, low taxes
different structures. The permanent party structure is those people and organizations that keep the party functioning on a daily basis. The permanent party structure has three parts. The party organization is composed of all those activists, volunteers and party officials that are active in the day-to-day functioning of the party. The party organization is organized like the federal government – it has organizations at the national, state, and local levels. That means it is decentralized – decisions and money flow from the bottom to the top. The party organization is also diverse – each organization has its own unique flavor. Among the people in the party organization are the party officials. Check with your text to find out the duties of the following party officials and how they are chosen: the national chair and vice chair, the national executive committee, the state chair and vice chair, the state executive committee, the county chair and county executive committee, and the precinct chair. The precinct chair is the basic level in the party organization in Texas.
The party-in-government, the second part of the permanent party organization, is composed of all those elected government officials of the party. You will frequently find conflict between the party organization and the party-in-government over who is in charge of the party and who should determine its course, beliefs, strategy, platform, and so forth. Because of the rise of candidate-centered campaigns, candidates no longer need party permission or support to get elected. Too, the party cannot determine who uses its name. Thus government officials are elected with the label of the party, but without party support, endorsement or loyalty.
The party-in-the-electorate is all those people who identify with the party. Party identification makes it more likely that people will get involved in politics. Independents vote in much less numbers than do people who are self-identified as belonging to a party.
The second major structure of US political parties is the temporary party structure, sometimes called the Convention System. The temporary party structure occurs every two years beginning with the primary election and ending with the national convention. It may involve people who have no real connection with the party, but rather are ideologues or one-issue groups that do not necessarily represent the party as a whole (much less the voters). Nonetheless, because these people attend the party conventions in large numbers, it is these people who decide party issues. The convention system is described in detail in your text. It consists of the precinct convention/caucus, the county convention, the state convention, and the national convention. Each convention level has its own responsibilities. The national convention adopts a national platform and rules, elects a national chair and vice chair, and selects the party’s presidential nominee every 4 years. The state convention adopts a state platform and rules, elects a national committeeman and committeewoman, elects delegates to the national convention, elects the state chair and vice chair, and elects the district committeemen and committeewomen who make up the state executive committee. The county convention adopts the county platform and rules, and elects delegates to the state convention. The precinct convention adopts precinct resolutions and elects delegates to the county convention. As we spend more time on elections, you will begin to see the how the role of the parties has changed over the last two hundred years.
From the end of Reconstruction until the late 1970s, the Democratic Party dominated Texas politics. The Republican Party began to grow, however, following WWII with the increased size and prosperity of the middle and upper classes in Texas. The first Republican official elected to a statewide office was John Tower, who was elected to the US Senate in 1961. The Republican base generally lies in urbanized, rapidly growing areas that contain lots of non-Texans. African Americans overwhelmingly vote Democratic. This has been true of Hispanics as well, although the latter may be changing.
The majority of American voters stand somewhere near the middle ground on many issues of American politics. Where do you place yourself politically? Now, most importantly, why? If you think you are a conservative ... why? If you think you are a liberal ... why? Don't look at only one or two issues. Look at a broad range of issues.
I. Ballot Rules
A. form
1) party column — more straight ticket voting
2) office block — more split ticket voting
3) hybrid ballot
B. access
1) independent candidate — petition signed by 1% of voters in last governor election
2) signers must be registered voters who did not vote in a Democratic or Republican primary
3) write-in candidates — must declare candidacy for votes to count
C. minor parties — between 5% and 19% of vote for statewide office
1) must hold nominating conventions, but not primary elections
2) slip below 5% for statewide office, lose ballot status
II. Primary Elections
— for parties receiving more than 20% of the vote for statewide office
A. types
1) open
2) closed
3) nonpartisan
4) blanket
5) Texas primary elections are classified as closed primaries where the voter signifies party membership by voting in a primary
B. open vs. closed primaries
1) raiding or crossover voting — more common in open primary
C. runoff primaries — In order to obtain a primary nomination in Texas, a candidate must receive a simple majority of the popular vote
1) mostly in south, vestige of one-party Democratic rule
2) no crossover voting from primary to runoff primary
III. Miscellaneous
A. 1965 Voting Rights Act
1) preclearance
2) Spanish ballots for areas with more than 20% Spanish speakers
B. absentee ballot — soldiers mostly
C. early voting 22 days before election, open to all voters
D. upper-class bias in early voting?
IV. Modern Campaigns
A. old system
1) local campaigns, limited statewide media
2) tell each county what they want to hear, suit message to each venue
B. new system
1) mass media, same message
2) speak in sound bites
3) campaign ads
-feel good
-sainthood
-good old boy
-NOOTS
-bashers
C. role of consultants
1) sell candidate as a product, package the candidate
2) image and message, not the issues
D. role of the PAC
1) can’t buy an election
2) can buy access
3) late train financing — post election fund-raising especially if a PAC supported the loser